BHIMTHADI.

Boundaries.

Bhimthadi, or Bhima Bank, is one of the eastern subdivisions, and has its head-quarters at Supa. It lies on the right bank of the Bhima between 18° 2' and 18° 40 north latitude and 74° 13' and 74° 55' east longitude, and is bounded on the north by Sirur and the Shrigonda sub-division of Ahmadnagar, both separated from it by the Bhima; on the east by the Karjat sub-division of Ahmadnagar and the Karmala sub-division of Sholapur both separated from it by the Bhima and by Indapur; on the south by the Phaltan State separated from it by the Nira; and on the west by Purandhar and Haveli. Its area is 1036 square miles, its 1881 population 110,428 or 107 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue £22,935 (Rs. 2,29,350).

Area.

Of an area of 1035 square miles 1032 have been surveyed in detail. Of these 99 are the lands of alienated villages. The rest, according to the revenue survey returns, contains 495,517 acres or 82 per cent of arable land; 316 acres or.05 per cent of unarable land, 20,065 acres or 3 per cent of grass ; 20,837 acres or 3 per cent of forest reserves; and (10,688 acres or 10 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 495,517 acres of arable land, 46,007 acres or 9 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 449,510 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 405,624 acres or 90 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 392,577 or 97 per cent were dry-crop and 13,047 acres or 3 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

A spur of the Sahyadris enters the sub-division from the west and quickly widening fills nearly the whole breadth before it reaches the eastern border. The only hill of note is that occupied by the ancient temple of Bhuleshvar. The north along the Bhima and the Mula-Mutha is generally level but is very bare of trees. The north-east is rough and hilly, as also are the villages bordering on the Bhuleshvar range to the east of Patas. There are almost no mango groves, but the grass lands along the Bhima have some good babhuls, and some babhuls, limbs, and pimpals fringe the sides of streams and shade the neighbourhood of wells. The Bhuleshvar hills in the centre are bare, and the whole country is exceedingly bleak. In the south the land slopes southwards, a waving plain watered and broken by the Karha and other smaller streams.

The flat hill tops have usually a surface of shallow black soil strewn with stones. The slopes and skirts of the hills are generally of shallow light soil, while black soil of considerable depth is found in the river basins Many villages near the Bhima and Nira have much deep rich black soil. The chief crops are bajri, jvari, math, grain, wheat, and kulthi, besides a little sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, linseed, and vegetables. The staple grains are jvari in the east and bajri in the west.

Water.

The, Mula-Mutha and Bhima form the northern, and the Nira the southern boundary; and the Karha a smaller stream, crossing the sub-division falls into the Nira in its south-east corner. Many smaller streams like the Karha are dry during the hot weather. Besides the Mutha canals which water a considerable area there are large reservoirs at Kasurde, Matoba, Shirsuphal, Patas, and Supa.

Wells.

Near the Bhima water lies so deep that villages along its bank have never had wells. In the whole sub-division besides 675 wells used for drinking, about 2766 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 874 are with and 2567 without steps. A well waters from one to three acres and the depth of water varies from one to twenty-two feet. The cost of building a well varies from £20 to £200 (Rs. 200 - 2000).

Climate.

The climate which is dry and airy varies in different parts. The north-west enjoys in general a good rainfall, while in the northeast, as in Indapur, the supply is scanty and uncertain. The difference begins from the Bhuleshvar hills to the east of Patas. Along the Bhima in the north the certain rainfall makes irrigation less necessary than in other parts. The southern half though part of it is nearer the Sahyadris has, like the north-east, an uncertain supply of rain due apparently to the clouds being drawn to the Purandhar and Mahadev hills.

Stock.

According to the 1882-83 returns, farm stock included fifty-nine riding and 2575 load carts, 525 two-bullock and 3434 four-bullock ploughs, 36,596 bullocks and 18,518 cows, 866 he-buffaloes and 2712 she-buffaloes, 2547 horses, 83,786 sheep and goats, and 1015 asses.

Crops.

In 1881 -82, of 403,112 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 34,898 acres or 8.65 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 368,214 acres, 4942 were twice cropped. Of the 373,156 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 318,258 acres or 85.28 per cent, of which 226,152 were under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 82,159 under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 8688 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 720 under maize makka Zea mays; 136 under rala or kang Panicum italicum; 51 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon; 33 under rice bhat Oryza sativa; and 319 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 17,017 acres or 4.56 per cent, of which 6698 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 2934 under kulith or kulthi Dolichoa biflorus; 1576 under tvr Cajanus indicus; 351 under mug Phaseolus mungo; and 5458 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 34,607 acres or 927 per cent, of which 354 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum; 70 under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum; and 34,183 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 659 acres or 0.17 per cent, all of them under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 2615 acres or 0.70 per cent, of which 724 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 311 under sugarcane us Saccharum officinaruin; 181 under tobacco tambakhu Nicotiana tabacum; and the remaining 1399 under various vegetables and fruits.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 110,428 people 106,733 or  96.65 per cent Hindus; 3569 or 3.23 per cent Musalmans; 115 or 0.10 per cent Christians; 7 Jews; and 4 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 3338 Brahmans; 28 Kayasth Prabhus, writers; 1158 Marwar Vanis, 765 Lingayats, 678 Gujarat Vanis, 71 Komtis, and 71 Vaishya Vanis, traders; 42,922 Kunbis, 8130 Malis, and 4 Kachis, husbandmen; 2954 Chambhars, leather-workers; 1026 Sonars, goldsmiths; 1026 Telis, oilmen; 976 Kumbhars, potters; 878 Badhais, carpenters; 641 Shimpis, tailors; 578 Lohars, blacksmiths; 531 Koshtis, weavers; 402 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 327 Sangars, weavers; 290 Lonaris, lime-burners; 167 Patharvats, stone-masons; 82 Salis, weavers; 40 Bhavsars, dyers; 35 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 33 Hauls, weavers; 20 Jingars, painters; 19 Beldars, quarrymen; 12 Gaundis, masons; 9 Tambats, coppersmiths; 5 Nilaris, dyers; 5 Ghisadis, polishers; 5 Otaris, casters; one Khatri, weaver; one Bhadbhunja, grain-parcher; 683 Guravs, temple-servants; 45 Ghadshis, musicians; 1412 Nhavis, barbers; 750 Parits, washermen; 13,770 Dhangars, cowmen; 128 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 1035 Kolis and 379 Bhois, fishers; 246 Rajputs, messengers; 34 Kamathis, house-builders; 5 Bhandaris, palm-tappers; 3 Kalals, distillers; 3 Lodhis, labourers; one Raddi, waterman; 4490 Ramoshis, watchmen; 1089 Vadars, stone-cutters; 370 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 216 Kaikadis, labourers; and 120 Thakurs, husbandmen; 9730 Mhars, village servants; 2974 Mangs, messengers; 73 Dhors, tanners; 26 Halalkhors, scavengers; and 518 Gosavis, 397 Joshis, 255 Holars, 215 Kolhatis, 142 Bharadis, 107 Kanphatas, 91 Jangams, 57 Vaidus, 50 Gondhlis, 28 Bhamtas, 19 Tirmalis, 13 Chitrakathis, 10 Aradhis, 9 Vasudevs, 7 Bhats, and 5 Manbhavs, beggars.

Cultivators.

About eighty-six per cent of the cultivators are Kunbis, nine per cent Brahmans, Lingayat Vanis, and Dhangars, four per cent Mhars and Mangs, and one per cent Musalmans. The houses of most husbandmen have walls of hardened earth occasionally mixed with stone. The roofs are either flat made of wood and hardened mud or sloping with tiles and reed thatch. Some rich landholders of Supa and Baramati have better and roomier houses than those in other parts of the sub-division. Nearly fifty per cent of the landholders have to borrow bullocks to till their holdings, as they seldom have more than one pair of their own. Rich landholders have one to six pairs of bullocks and also have she-buffaloes, goats, and sheep. About seventy per cent have not more than enough grain to keep themselves and their families, and the poor have to eke out their profits by labour. About sixty per cent are small landowners, thirty per cent labourers, and ten per cent proprietors with tenants. The Kunbis do a substantial business during the slack season in carting, either themselves working for hire or letting their carts and bullocks.

Communications.

The Poona-Sholapur road passes throughout the length of the sub-division, and the Peninsula Railway also crosses it in the same direction, the two running parallel to and at a very short distance from each other through the western half, while the eastern half is opened by the railway in the north and the Poona high road in the centre. Three railway stations, Dhond Patas and Kedgaon, are within the Bhimthadi limits, and two Diksal and Uruli are close to its borders. Besides these, main lines of road lead from the station at Kedgaon to Sirur through Prirgaon and to Supa and Jejuri through Padvi. The market towns are Patas, Karkamb, and Yavat on the high road from Poona to Sholapur.and Baramati,Supa, Jejuri, Sasvad, Phaltan, Wai,Bhor and Satara are all within reach of the sub-division, The people are almost entirely occupied in husbandry, and gram and other products are sent to Poona and to a less extent to Bombay.

HAVELI.

Boundaries.

Haveli, the most southerly of the Sahyadri sub-divisions, with its head-quarters at Poona, and lying between 18° 17' and 18° 45' north latitude and 73° 24'and 74° 16' east longitude, is bounded on the north by Khed and Sirur; on the east by Bhimthadi; on the south by Purandhar and Bhor; and on the west by Pen in Kolaba and Bhor in Satara. Its area is 813 square miles, its 1881 population 287,062 or 353 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue £20,494 (Rs. 2,04,940).

Area.

Of an area of 813 square miles 795 have been surveyed in detail, Of these 202 are the lands of alienated villages. The rest, according to the revenue survey returns, contains 265,329 acres or 69 per cent of arable land; 11,075 acres or 2 per cent of unarable land; 23,089 acres or 6 per cent of grass; 30,336 acres or 7 per cent of forest reserves; and 49,910 acres or 13 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 265,329 acres of arable land, 34,688 acres or 13 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated land in Government villages. Of the balance of 230,641 acres the actual area of arable Government land 226,841 acres or 98 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 212,044 acres or 93 per cent were dry-crop and 14,797 acres or 7 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

A. spur from the Sahyadris, of which the hill fort of Sinhgad in the west is the most conspicuous feature, runs along the southern boundary of the sub-division. To the east of Poona in the centre the country is flat, open, and almost bare of trees; to the west it is rugged and hilly and much of it well wooded especially along the south side of the Mutha where are large numbers of fine mango trees and a sprinkling of jack trees. Teak also appears on the sides of the Sinhgad hills but never grows to any size. The Mula-Mutha running east divides the country to the east of Poona into two nearly equal portions. The tract to the north of the Mula-Mutha, between it and the Bhima, comprising some of the poorer villages, is chiefly stony, barren, high-lying land, better fitted for sheep-grazing than tillage. The people make the most of their barren inheritance, every available gorge being blocked with rough stone embankments, to gather and keep the scanty soil which is washed from uplands. The country to the south between the Mutha and the hills is much more level and has a large proportion of rich soil. Even under the hills the villages are not unfruitful, a better rainfall making up for a somewhat poorer soil.

The flat-topped hills and terraces have usually a shallow surface of black soil strewn with stones. The slopes and skirts of the hills are shallow red and gray or mere stones and rock, and the river and stream basins are a rich deep black.

The neighbourhood of the great market of Poona makes the tillage of Haveli more energetic and careful than in most other parts of the district. The chief crops are bajri, jvari, rice, nagli, hulga, wheat, gram, tur, khurasni, udid, mug, til, bhuimug, castor-seed, sugarcane, and chillies. Near Poona those crops are chiefly grown which are suited to meet the daily demands of a large city. Green fodder in a great measure supersedes grain and is supplied by early jvari and maize. In garden lands especially for some miles around Poona, oranges, limes, pomaloes, guavas, plantains, figs, pomegranates, grapes, mangoes, and vegetables of all kinds, both local and foreign, are grown in large quantities. Lucern grass is a much-grown and profitable crop. Panmalas or betel vine gardens are numerous especially in the villages of Kondve Budruk, Kondve Khurd, Nudri, Muhammadvadi, and Phursangi. To the west of Poona early or kharif crops predominate, the chief being early jvari and bajri supplemented by tur, til, nachni, and wheat. Rice is also grown in a few border villages notably in Rahatanda, Arvi, Marunji, Kasarsai, Mulkhed, and Bhukan. These western villages have little garden land, probably because the rainfall is certain enough to ensure a regular return from dry-crop tillage. They have also much land under grass which from the plentiful rainfall grows freely and in Poona finds a ready sale. The area of arable land kept for private grazing is no less than 13.45 per cent of the whole occupied area. Vagholi, Kharadi, Vadgaon, Sheri, Kesnand, and Lohogaon from their nearness to Poona, have large tracts under grass which probably pay better than they would if under tillage. Long strings of men and women daily bring in bundles of grass, firewood, cowdung-cakes, and milk to the camp and city of Poona.

Water.

The sub-division is well watered. Besides the smaller streams it is crossed by five considerable rivers, the Bhima and the Indrayani which form its northern boundary, the Pauna rising in the Nane-Maval and falling into the Mula near Dapuri, and the Mula and the Mutha, which, with their sources in the Sahyadris join below the city of Poona and flow east to the Bhima. The Indrayani, which also has its source in the Sahyadris, after crossing Maval flows into the Bhima at Tolapur, from which for a short distance the Bhima forms the boundary of Haveli. All of these rivers throughout the hot months hold water in considerable pools, if not in small streams. The Mutha canal scheme, including Lake Fife and the Pashan reservoir are the chief sources of crop water. Except these two water works the streams seldom supply water channels throughout the year, and are useful in raising only such crops as can be cleared before the hot weather begins in March. The Katraj lake in the Sinhgad hills about fifteen miles south of Poona was built by Balaji Bajirav the third Peshwa (1740-1761), to supply the city of Poona with drinking water. The canal still carries a small quantity of water into the city.

Wells.

Besides 99 wells used for drinking, about 1722 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 599 are with and 1222 without steps. A well waters from two to four acres and the depth of water varies from four to twenty feet. The cost of building a well varies from £20 to £200 (Rs. 200 - 2000).

Climate.

The climate which is dry and healthy varies much in different parts of the sub-division; the rainfall increases so rapidly towards the west that in the border villages rice and nagli take the place of jvari and bajri. Mulshi in the west has an average fall of forty-seven inches, compared with twenty-five inches at Poona in the centre.

Crops.

In 1881-82, of 226,743 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 21,306 acres or 9.39 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 205,437 acres, 1803 were twice cropped. Of the 207,240 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 185,994 acre3 or 8974 per cent of which 81,283 were under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 54,877 under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 21,104 under rice bhat Oryza sativa; 12,572 under rdgi or nachni Eleusine corocana; 8288 under sava and vari Panicum miliaceum and miliare; 3503 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 113 under rala or hang Panicum italicum; 50 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon; 50 under maize makka Zea mays; and 4154 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 2841 acres or 1.37 per cent, of which 1404 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 589 under tur Cajanus indicus; 226 under mug Phaseolus inungo; 110 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 100 under peas vatana Pisum sativum; 47 under udid Phaseolus radiatus; and 365 under other pulses. Oil-seeds occupied 11,148 acres or 537 per cent, of which 4392 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum, and 6756 under other oil-seeds. Fibres occupied 2362 acres or 1.13 per cent. Miscellaneous crops occupied 4895 acres or 2.36 per cent, of which 2260 were under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; 221 under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; and the remaining 2414 under various vegetables and fruits.

Stock.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 962 riding and 5110 load carts, 4508 two-bullock and 4359 four-bullock ploughs, 34,046 bullocks and 25,229 cows, 1556 he-buffaloes and 8763 she-buffaloes, 2176 horses, 21,169 sheep and goats, and 2140 asses.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 287,062 people 256,056 or 8919 per cent Hindus; 20,503 or 7.13 per cen Musalmans; 8372 or 2.91 per cent Christians; 1491 or 0.5: per cent Parsis; 560 or 0.19 per cent Jews; 77 Buddhists and 3 Unitarians. The details of the Hindu castes are: 23,976 Brahmans; 554 Kayasth Prabhus, 398 Velalis, 171 Patane Prabhus, and 30 Dhruv Prabhus, writers; 3458 Mar war Vanis, 2189 Linga-yats, 1542 Gujarat Vanis, 351 Vaishya Vanis, 236 Kirads, 156 Korntis, 95 Agarvals, 67 Bhatyas, 63 Brahma-Kshatris, 49 Tambolis, 33 Bangars, and 6 Lohanas, traders and merchants; 117,830 Kun-bis, 13,502 Malis, 649 Kachis, 64 Baris, and 10 Pahadis, husband-men; 5496 Chambhars, leather-workers; 5256 Shimpis, tailors; 3878 Sonars, goldsmiths; 2776 Badhais, carpenters; 2496 Telis, oilmen; 2338 Kumbhars, potters; 1200 Salis, weavers; 1121 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 864 Tambats, coppersmiths; 511 Jingars, painters; 504 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 487 Koshtis, weavers; 408 Lohars, blacksmiths; 381 Ghisadis, polishers; 381 Khatris, weavers; 357 Beldars, quarrymen; 344 Lonaris, lime-burners; 256 Gaundis, masons; 252 Patharvats, stone-masons; 275 Hauls, weavers; 245 Sangars, weavers; 198 Bhadbhunjas, grain-parchers; 98 Nilaris, dyers; 86 Saltankars, tanners; 79 Lakheris, lac bracelet-makers; 66 Halvais, sweetmeat-sellers; 59 Otaris, casters; 53 Kacharia, glassbangle-makers; 32 Bhavsars, dyers; 21 Kataris, turners; 20 Jharekaris, dust-washers; 931 Guravs, temple-servants; 27 Ghadshis, musicians; 3408 Nhavis, barbers; 2556 Parits, washermen; 4256 Dhangars, cowmen; 1757 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 2322 Kolis and 1907 Bhois, fishers; 2328 Rajputs, messengers; 1053 Kamathis, house-builders; 361 Lodhis, labourers; 180 Chhapar-bands, thatchers; 108 Bhandaris, palm-tappers; 62 Kalals, distillers; 29 Raddis, watermen; 3766 Ramoshis, watchmen; 679 Van-jaris, grain-dealers; 470 Kaikadis, labourers; 397 Vadars, stonecutters; 346 Kathkaris, catechu-makers; 243 Thakurs, husbandmen; 81 Bhils, labourers; 30 Phasepardhis and 5 Berads, hunters; 23,554 Mhars, village-servants; 4303 Mangs, messengers; 878 Halalkhors, scavengers; 392 Dhors, tanners; 1449 Gosavis, 465 Jangatns, 444 Joshis, 357 Vaidus, 257 Bharadis, 199 Gondhlis, 93 Kolhatis, 77 Panguls, 74 Joharis, 65 Holars, 50 Bhats, 38 Bhamtas, 21 Manbhavs, 20 Kanphatas, 15 Ar&dhis, 14 Chitrakathis, 12 Bhutas, and 10 Tirmalis, beggars.

Communication

Except in some of the villages to the north-west of Poona where the country is too rugged for carts means of communication abound in the subdivision. The Peninsula railway runs through its centre having five stations within its limits. The high roads are numerous and good, the chief being those to Bombay, Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, and Satara. To Satara there are three routes by the Katraj, Babdev, and Diva passes, all skilful lasting works, the top of the Katraj hill being pierced by a tunnel of considerable length. Many miles of excellent made roads cross the cantonment of Poona and connect it with Kirkee and the city. A second class road runs also through Narayangaon to Junnar and Nasik. All these roads centre in Poona and give easy access from all parts of the district to the vast quantity of supplies required by so large a city. The villages in the Mutha valley have a good road from the foot of Sinhgad; and the new road to Bhor joins Bhukum, Bavdhan, and other places with the city while most of the villages along the Mula are at no great distance from the old Bombay road. In the north-west of the sab-division a new road has been made from Poona to Paud.

INDAPUR.

Boundaries.

Inda'pur, the most south-easterly sub-division, lying between 7° 54' and 18° 20' north latitude are and 74° 44' and 75° 14' east longitude, is bounded on the north by Bhimthadi and by the Karmala sub-division of Sholapur, which, separated by the Bhima, also forms its eastern boundary; on the south by the Malsiras sub-division of Sholapur and the Phaltan state territory, both separated from it by the Nira; and on the west by Bhimthadi. Its area is 566 square miles, its 1881 population 48,114 or 85 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue £10,200 (Rs. 1,02,000).

Area.

Of an area of 566.6 square miles 353,570 acres have been surveyed in detail. Of these 9366 acres are the lands of alienated villages. The rest according to the revenue survey returns contains 291,828 acres or 85 per cent of arable land; 21,268 acres or 6.1 per cent of unarable land; 18,467 acres or 53 per cent of grass; 493 acres or 01 per cent of forest reserves; and 12,144 acres or 3.5 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 291,828 acres of arable land, 14,547 acres or 4.9 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 277,280 acres, the actual area of arable Government land 206,999 acres or 74.6 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 199,929 acres or 97 per cent were dry-crop and 7069 acres or 3 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

The sub-division is hilly and rugged in the north-west and centre, but towards the rivers on its borders it is open and smooth. In all the higher lands the soils are shallow and stony. Good black soil is found on plateaus, but of no extent or depth except along the banks of the Nira and Bhima. A yellow alluvial soil called dheli is also found in small quantities along these streams. A small area of land close to the banks of the Bhima is yearly flooded and enriched by the rainy weather freshes and its tillage to some extent made independent of the local rainfall. Though a little bajris grown the staple crop is jvari.

Water.

The river Bhima bounds Indapur from its north-west to its south-east corner where it is joined by the river Nira, which forms the southern boundary. Besides the Nira canal which commands a large area there are large reservoirs at Indapur and Bhadalvadi.

In a drought-stricken tract like Indapur, before any large waterworks were constructed, its wells were of the greatest importance. In past years the little spots round wells were the only parts of the district that yielded any return. The Nira canal supplies water enough even for late crops and during the cold months instead of Indapur being parched and barren, large tracts are covered with valuable crops. Besides by direct watering, the supplies brought by the Nira canal have improved Indapur by soaking into the soil. Wells that were dry before the canal was opened have now a good supply; and streams which ceased to flow early in the dry season now flow nearly throughout the year.

Well.

Besides 409 wells used for drinking, about 1185 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 359 are with and 1235 without steps. A well waters from one to twelve acres and the depth of water varies from five to thirty feet. The cost of building a well varies from £20 to £200 (Rs. 200 - 2000).

Climate.

As regards rainfall, Indapur is one of the worst placed sub-divisions in the Deccan. In parts seasonable rain seems unknown and when the rain is seasonable it is generally scanty and uncertain. Year after year lands are left unsown for want of moisture and those that are sown yield next to nothing. Failures of crops more or less general are the rule and a good, or even a fair harvest the exception. Apparently from its nearness to the Mahadev range in North Satara the fall is somewhat larger and more certain along the Bhima in the south-east corner of the sub-division than in the west from Kalas to the Baramati villages in Bhimthadi.

Stock.

According to the 1882 returns farm stock included twenty-five riding and 1213 load carts, 780 two-bullock and 1508 four-bullock ploughs, 17,514 bullocks and 8086 cows, 1061 he-buffaloes and 2095 she-buffaloes, 1253 horses, 53,153 sheep and goats, and 562 asses.

Crops.

In 1881-82, of 218,881 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 20,868 acres or 9.53 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 198,013 acres, 1431 were twice cropped. Of the 199,444 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 160,690 acres or 80.56 per cent, of which 129,069 were under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 24,136 under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 2983 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 630 under maize makka Zea mays; 102 under rice bhdt Oryza sativa; 85 under rala or kang Panicum italicum; 14 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon; and 3671 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 10,527 acres or 5.27 per cent, of which 5020 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 645 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 356 under tur Cajanus indicus; 31 under mug Phaseolus mungo; 2 under peas vatana Pisum sativum; and 4473 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 23,039 acres or ll.55 per cent, of which 77 were under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum; 14 under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum; and 22,948 under other oil seeds. Fibres occupied 4703 acres or 2.35 per cent, of which 4565 were under cotton kapus Gossypium herbaceum; 94 under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea; and44 under other fibres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 485 acres or 0.24 per cent, of which 264 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 113 under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; 38 under tobacco tambakhu Nicotiana tabacum; and the remaining 70 under various vegetables and fruits.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 48,114 people 46,240 or 96.10 per cent Hindus; 1801 or 3.74 per cent Musalmans; 68 Christians; and 5 Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 2046 Brahmans; 7 Kayasth Prabhus, writers; 652 Lingayats, 574 Marwar Vanis, 365 Gujarat Vanis, 145 Vaishya Vani's, and 25 Komtis, traders; 16,704 Kunbis and 3282 Malis, husbandmen; 1036 Chambhars, leather-workers; 460 Telis, oilmen; 391 Sonars, goldsmiths; 374 Kumbhars, potters; 374 Badhais, carpenters; 323 Lohars, blacksmiths; 237 Shimpis, tailors; 209 Koshtis, weavers; 118 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 81 Lonaris, lime-burners; 69 Sangars, weavers; 52 Gaundis, masons; 47 Beldars, quarrymen; 44 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 40 Bhavsars, dyers; 21 Tambats, coppersmiths; 19 Khatris, weavers; 18 Patharvats, stone-masons; 18 Salis, weavers; 12 Jingars, painters; 5 Kataris, turners; 4 Rauls, weavers; 268 Guravs, temple-servants; 25 Ghadshis, musicians; 625 Nhavis, barbers; 365 Parits, washermen; 7640 Dhangars, cowmen; 35 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 443 Kolis and 96 Bhois, fishers; 151 Rajputs, messengers; 1103 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 1188 Ramoshis, watchmen; 251 Vadars, stone-cutters; 124 Thakurs, husbandmen; 88 Kaikadis, labourers; 87 Berads and 64 Phasepardhis, hunters; 3442 Mhars, village-servants; 1782 Mangs, messengers; 26 Dhors, tanners; 260 Gosavis, 166 Holars, 98 Joshis, 52 Jangams, 39 Gondhlis, 33 Tirmalis, 16 Kolhatis, 7 Bhats, 6 Aradhis, 5 Joharis, and 3 Manbhavs, beggars.

Cultivators.

Of about 20,000 husbandmen about seventy per cent are Kunbis, eight per cent Dhangars, eight per cent Malis, five per cent Marwari Gujar and Lingayat Vanis, three per cent Brahinans, three per cent Musalmans, and two per cent Vanjaris. The houses are generally poor with walls of hardened mud and flat roofs. Dwellings with stone walls are sometimes found. The husbandman's dress is of the coarsest kind and his household goods are seldom worth more than £2 10s. (Rs. 25). Only a small number of landholders have a large stock of cattle and a complete set of field tools. The rest have to borrow. Few garden crops are grown. The tillage is careless and manure and deep ploughing are almost unknown. Of the cultivating classes about five percent are proprietors with tenants, sixty per cent small landholders, and thirty-five per cent labourers. Marwari Gujar and Lingayat Vanis and Brahmans, as a rule, do not work in the fields. Many Kunbis and Malis take to carting when field work is slack and add considerably to their scanty means of living. Dhangars feed large flocks of sheep and make a fair living by selling them and their butter and wool.

Communications.

The Ponna-Sholapur road runs through the sub-division by the central town of Indapur.

JUNNAR.

Boundaries.

Junnar, the most northerly sub-division, stretching from the Sahyadris to the eastern boundary of the district and lying between 18° 59' and 19° 22' north latitude and 73° 43' and 74° 24' east longitude is about thirty-five miles long and sixteen or seventeen miles broad. It is bounded on the north by the Akola, Sangamner, and Parner sub-divisions of Ahmadnagar; on the east by Parner; on the south by Parner and Khed separated from it for about fifteen miles by the Ghod; and on the west by the Murbad sub-division of Thana. Its area is 611 square miles, its 1881 population 102,273 or 167 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue £14,714 (Rs. 1,47,140).

Area.

Of an area, of 611 square miles 606 have been surveyed in detail. Of those 62 are the lands of alienated villages. The rest according to the rovenat- survey returns contains 236,408 acres or 67 per cent of arable land; 114,674 acres or 33 per cent of unarable land; 236,408 acres or 67 per cent of grass; 34,296 acres or 9 per cent of forest reserves; and 10,752 acres or about 3 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 236,407 acres of arable land, 18,727 acres or 5.3 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 217,680 acres the actual area of arable Government land, 203,224 acres or 57.75 per cent were under tillage in 1880.81. Of these 200,155 acres or 5687 per cent were dry-crop and 3569 acres or 0.87 per cent were watered garden lands.

Aspect.

Numerous spurs, forming distinct ranges, start at right angles to the Sahyadris in the west, and growing gradually smaller, barer, and tamer, spread many miles east and south-east. The chief of these ranges is the Harishchandragad range in the north which for some distance separates Poona from Ahmadnagar. South of this and parallel to it are two smaller spurs separated from each other by the narrow valleys which form the approach from the Deccan to the Malsej and,Nana passes. These ranges are neither so lofty nor so broad as the Harishchandragad range. They pass east for about fifteen miles and then near the town of Junnar disappear somewhat abruptly. To the south of these a fourth range bounds the Junnar and Khed sub-divisions as far as Mahalunga in Khed. Each of the valleys lying between these spurs formed one of the old petty divisions or tarfs known as Minner, Kokadner, and Madhkhore. The most noted hills are Harishchandragad whose southern slopes only are in the sub-division, Shivner, Chavand, Hadsar, Jivdhan, and Narayangad, all of which are fortified and of great strength. Round Junnar there are three hills, Ganesh Pahad three miles to the north, Tuljadevi two miles to the west, and Manmodi one and a half miles to the south.

Except a few villages, Junnar consists of the two valleys of the Mina and the Kukdi. Towards the west the Kukdi valley splits into three ravines where the main river is joined by the Ar and the Pushpavati. In the east only a rising ground separates the valleys of the Mina and the Kukdi which might almost be called one plain. To the west of Junnar the valleys are separated by spurs of the Sahyadris that rise 3000 to 4500 feet above the sea and 1000 to 1500 feet above the plain. The sub-division thus forms two distinct portions to the east and west of the town of Junnar and Otur. The east half which includes perhaps three-fifths of the sub-division is open and except a few single hills is flat. The west is a mass of high hills and valleys more or less rugged and broken. In the east the soil is generally either black or a poor gravel. The black soil, except in a few villages in the centre of the sub-division and in a few places along the rivers, is generally thin or of strangely variable depth. In this portion the gentle slope from the base of the hills to the river banks is in every way suited for gardens, water being available either from wells or dams thrown across streams. In the west the soil is very variable. The Madhkhore or northern valley is comparatively flat and open and has a large area of black and blackish red soil. The central valley or Kokaduer is particularly rugged and broken with hardly any black soil, the prevailing soil being reddish; and the third or south valley the Minner, is a narrow strip of rolling country, with soil generally blackish but coarse and shallow. Except a little land watered from streams this part has no gardens, the place of garden crops being taken by rice of which a large area is grown. Every stream is dammed and every suitable hollow and dip is a rice patch. The rice soil varies considerably. In the Madhkhore on the north it is nearly all black or brownish-gray or brown, in Kokadner in the centre much is fine yellow and yellowish red, and in the Minner in the south it is nearly all black or brownish gray. Near the town of Junnar the valleys and garden lands are very rich. Over the whole sub-division the chief crop is bajri with about 44.7 per cent of the whole tillage. The next is wheat of which the best sorts are raised near Junnar and in the chief valleys. Large quantities of garden produce are grown especially in the centre and east. Plantains are a favourite crop at Ale and at Junnar, and Rajuri is famous for its vineyards, and large quantities both of grapes and of plantains go to the Foona and Bombay markets. The western and northern villages grow rice instead of garden crops. In the better soils a second crop of gram and peas is raised after the rice is cut and sometimes wheat and vegetables, and rarely sugarcane. On the mal or uplands the usual crops are nagli, sava, and khurasni. Where the slopes are not too steep the plough is used, but in many places bullocks cannot be used and the land is dug by hand. These steep tracts generally remain untilled for several years and then, as in the old wood-ash or dalhi system the bushes are cut and burnt. There is no fixed rule about ploughing. The heavier black soils are generally ploughed every second year, while the lighter soils are ploughed every year. The large area of land, 11,724 acres, watered from wells and channels has caused so heavy a demand for manure that dry-crop land is left totally unmanured. The practice of sending the cattle to graze in the western villages reduces the supply of manure, and in the centre where the soil is good, it is not enough even for garden land.

Water.

Besides the Mina in the north and the Kukdi in the centre which have their sources in the Sahyadris a smaller river called the Pushpavati rises near the Malsej pass, flows through the Madh valley, receives the water of the Mandva, and meets the Kukdi near the village of Kivra. The Mina and the Kukdi are both feeders of the Ghod, which, for about ten miles, forms the southern boundary of the sub-division. They pass south-east in nearly parallel lines and hold water in pools throughout the year and on all of them are dams for channel-watering and wells.

Wells.

Besides about 260 wells used for drinking, about 3781 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 185 are with and about 3856 without steps. A well waters from one to five acres and the depth of water varies from four feet to nine feet. The cost of building a well varies from £10 to £50 (Rs. 100 - 500).

Climate.

The climate is dry and healthy and free from hot winds. Great heat and total failure of rain are very rare. Within the limits of the sub-division there is great variety of climate. On the western border the rainfall is abundant. The tract near Junnar is famous for its fine climate. Nowhere in Poona is the rainfall so general and so certain as here. During the twenty-one years ending 1881 the Junnar rainfall varied from 10.18 inches in 1862 to 3943 inches in 1878, and averaged 22.61 inches from 1860 to 1870 and 23.91 inches from 1871 to 1881.

Cultivators.

The chief husbandmen are Kunbis, Kolis, and Thakurs. Kolis and Thakurs who form about ten per cent of the people are found near the Sahyadris, and the Kunbis who form about sixty-five per cent in other parts of the sub-division. The husbandmen's houses are poor, built of hardened mud, with roofs of tiles, reeds, straw, mud, and. sticks. A few rich husbandmen have large houses with sloping tiled roofs. The average value of a husbandman's stock of house goods varies from £2 10s. to £7 10s. (Rs. 25 - 75). Their livestock generally includes one or 'more cows or she-buffaloes and one or more pair of bullocks with a few goats. A Koli's stock is less than a Kunbi's. Large vat-shaped grain stores are sometimes found attached to the houses of the better class of husbandmen. Most husbandmen are small landholders, a considerable number are labourers, and a small number are proprietors with tenants. Many in the intervals of field labour make money by carting. A few Dhangars weave blankets and Salis weave women's robes. The poorer families, both men women and children, often labour in the fields of the richer, and receive regular wages. The rich landholders do a large business in lending grain and more rarely money to their poorer brethren.

Crops.

In 1881-82, of 203,184 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 20,190 acres or 9.93 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 182,994 acres, 1843 were twice cropped. Of the 184,837 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 163,704 acres or 88.56 per cent, of which 108,599 were under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 21,677 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 16,438 under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 6983 under ragi or nachni Eleusine corocana; 4317 under sava and vari Panicum miliaceum. and miliare; 4169 under rice bhat Oryza sativa; 397 under kodra or harik Paspalum scrobiculatum; 6 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon; one under rala or kang Panicum italicum; and 1117 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 9659 acres or 5.22 per cent, pf which 4770 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 2220 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 769 under tur Cajanus indicus; 687 under mug Phaseolus mungo; 330 under udid Phaseolus radiatus; 329 under peas vatana Pisum sativum; 94 under lentils masur Ervum lens; and 460 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 7233 acres or 3.91 per cent, of which 5806 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum; and 1427 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 15 acres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 4226 acres or 2.28 per cent, 1867 of which were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 275 under tobacco tambakhu Nicotiana tabacum; 968 under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; and the remaining 1116 under various vegetables and fruits.

Stock.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 543 riding and 1529 load carts, 4288 two-bullock and 3848 four-bullock ploughs, 27,481 bullocks and 16,944 cows, 2731 he-buffaloes and 6320 she-buffaloes, 906 horses, 40,870 sheep and goats, and 856 asses.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 102,273 people, 97,241 or 95.07 per cent Hindus; 5006 or 4.89 per cent Musalmans; 22 Christians; and 4 Shaikhs. The details of the Hindu castes are: 6137 Brahmans; 988 Marwar Vanis, 354 Lingayats, 107 Gujarat Vanis, 50 Komtis, and 45 Vaishya Vanis, traders; 44,982 Kunbis and 7431 Malis, husbandmen; 1486 Badhais, carpenters; 1069 Chambhars, leather-workers; 1015 Telis, oilmen; 974 Kumbhars, potters; 950 Sonars, goldsmiths; 873 Salis, weavers; 840 Koshtis, weavers; 756 Shimpis, tailors; 325 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 217 Lohars, blacksmiths; 95 Tambats, coppersmiths; 73 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 71 Beldars, quarrymen; 60 Bhavsars, dyers; 47 Nilaris, dyers; 38 Patharvats, stone-masons; 29 Khatris, weavers; 18 Ghisadis, polishers; 1,7 Rauls, weavers; 12 Lonaris, lime-burners; 10 Kataris, turners; 8 Jingars, painters; 6 Gaundis, masons; 932 Guravs, temple-servants; 990 Nhavis, barbers; 573 Parits, washermen; 1041 Dbangars, cowmen; 12,467 Kolis and 185 Bhois, fishers; 330 Rajputs, messengers; 2367 Thakurs, husbandmen; 1009 Ramoshis, watchmen; 246 Bhils, labourers; 181 Vadars,stonecutters; 137 Kathkaris, catechu-makers; 70 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 64 Kaikadis, labourers; 5670 Mhars, village-servants; 632 Mangs, messengers; 273 Dhors, tanners; and 436 Gosavis, 169 Joshis, 112 Gondhlis, 106 Jangams, 73 Bharadis, 48 Kolhatis, 23 Manbhavs, 11 Aradhis, 5 Joharis, "4 Chitrakathis, and 4 Panguls, beggars.

Communications and Traffic.

Junnar has fair means of communication: all the market towns and villages lie on made roads. Of two metalled roads the Poona-Nasik high road passes north and south by the towns of Narayangaon and Ale; the other branches off the Poona-Nasik road at Narayangaon and goes as far as Junnar. Of several fair-weather local fund roads one runs east to the Ahmadnagar district and west to, the Konkan down the Malsej pass by the market towns of Belha, Ale, Otur, and Madh. At Belha the road has two branches one to Ahmadnagar through the Anna pass and the other through Parner joining the Poona-Ahmadnagar high road. The town of Junnar is connected with this road by two branches, one ending at Otur the other at Dingora. Another road fit for carts runs from Junnar to Ghatghar at the top of the Nana pass and though fit only for bullocks and buffaloes has a considerable traffic with the Konkan. Besides these some other short roads are passable for carts in the fair weather. Numerous villages on the tops of hills or in the broken west and north country are inaccessible to carts, pack animals being employed in carrying goods to and from them. The chief markets are at Junnar, Narayangaon, Ale, Madh, and Otur, and small ones at Belha and Anna both alienated villages. At Junnar is a large attendance and weekly sales amount to £200 (Rs. 2000). Besides the people of the villages round, those of the western villages and many from the Konkan below the Nana pass go to Junnar, bringing hill grains grown there, bundles of wood and grass, and baskets. In 1880-81, 1636 carts and 24,369 laden pack animals entered Junnar. The weekly sales at Narayangaon and Ale amount to about £45 (Rs. 450) each. The chief outside markets to which Junnar produce passes are Alkute in the Parner sub-division of Ahmadnagar to the east and the large cattle market of Manehar in Khed to the south. Besides weaving which is carried on in most of the large towns, paper-making is carried on in the town of Junnar to a considerable extent. The paper is sent to Poona, Sholapur, and the Nizam's dominions. The leading local exports are gram, chillies, potatoes, onions, plantains, oil-cake, paper, myrobalans, and sheep. The traffic chiefly passes by the Poona-Nasik and Junnar-Nanaghat roads.

From Ale, Narayangaon, and the Mina valley villages plantains potatoes and chillies go by cart either direct to Poona or branching off near Khed go through Talegaon by rail to Bombay or by road to Panvel for the Konkan. Chillies go in large quantities to Panvel from Narayangaon. Plantains worth £3000 to £4000 (Rs. 30,000-40,000) go to Poona from Ale. By this road too paper, cotton goods, and iron and other heavy goods are imported and exported. Prom December 1881 to March 1882, about 3500 pack animals a month passed up and down the Nanaghat road. The chief articles sent down were chillies, onions, wheat, bajri, oil-cake, and myrobalans mostly to Kalyan in Thana for export to Europe. A large number of sheep are forwarded by this road to Bombay. Over 10,000 passed during the four months of the cold weather of 1881-82. Flocks of sheep come from Sangamner and other sub-divisions of Ahmadnagar to graze in Junnar where they are welcomed on account of their manure, and dealers buy them and send them along with locally reared sheep to the Bombay markets. Along the Malsej route a fair amount of traffic passes between the northern part of the subdivision, Otur and Madh, and the Konkan. The exports are of the same kind as on the other roads, and the average number of pack animals is about 2900 a month. Otur has a little traffic with the Akola sub-division of Ahmadnagar, sending bajri and salt and getting rice and hill grains. A certain amount of cloth, potatoes, and tobacco go by the old Ahmadnagar road through Bori Budruk and Belha to the Ahmadnagar district, most of the carts passing as far as Yeola. The imports are less in quantity than the exports. Cotton goods, iron, copper vessels, groceries, and refuse scrap paper for the paper-makers are the leading articles brought by cart; the pack-bullocks chiefly bring salt and cocoanuts from the Konkan. Among the minor imports is kerosine oil.

KHED.

Boundaries.

Khed, one of the Sahyadri sub-divisions, lying between 18° 34' and 19° 13' north latitude and 73° 35' and 74° 15' east longitude, is bounded on the north by Junnar, on the east by Sirur, on the south by Haveli and Maval, and on the west by the Karjat and Murbad sub-divisions of Thana. Its area is 888 square miles. In 1881 its population was 141,890 or 160 to the square mile, and in 1881-82 its land revenue was £15,887 (Rs. 1,58,870).

Area.

Of an area of 877 square miles 822 have been surveyed in detail. Of these about 116 miles or 74,168 acres are the lands of alienated villages. The rest about 706 miles or 451,965 acres contains, according to the revenue survey returns, 292,278 acres or 64½ per cent of arable land; 159,686 acres or 35½ per cent of unarable land; 283,875 acres or 62 per cent of grass; 83,602 acres or 18 per cent of forest reserves; and 76 084 acres or 16 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 292,278 acres of arable land, 26,295 acres or 8 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 265,982 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 257,580 acres or 96 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 252,381 acres or 98 per cent were dry-crop and 5198 acres or 2 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

Within Khed limits are two large chains of hills one in the north which separates it from Junnar and one in the south which separates it from Maval. Besides these, two smaller ranges of hills cross the centre. These ranges divide Khed into three leading valleys of the Bhima, the Bhama, and the Indrayani. The east is a series of tablelands, divided and crossed by mountains and hills; towards the west as it approaches the Sahyadris, the country becomes still more broken and rugged. Most of the soil is either red or gray.

The Maval or west has little dry crop tillage. Much of the soil can be cropped only at intervals of several years. Rice is the great staple and rent-paying product, the other crops being nachni, vari, and sava which supply the food on which the bulk of the people live. The east of the sub-division which is fairly level grows the ordinary dry-crops chiefly those that belong to the early harvest. Much of the deep black and brown soil is moisture-holding and yields two crops bajri followed by gram. The villages near Khed and Chakan have a large area under pepper, which in low moist places is grown as a monsoon crop. Considerable quantities of potatoes are grown. The husbandry on the whole is good. Manure is regularly used and is so much appreciated that husbandmen bring it back from Poona after disposing of their jvari straw.

Climate.

The climate is generally good. During the four years ending 1873-74 the rainfall averaged 24.12 inches.

Water.

The rivers Ghod, Bhima, Bhama, and Indrayani water the subdivision, flowing west to east in nearly parallel courses. All have water in pools throughout the hot season.

Wells.

Besides 611 wells used for drinking about 2623 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 434 are with and 2800 without steps. A well waters from four to six acres and the depth of water varies from two to twenty-four feet. The cost of building a well varies from 10s. to £200 (Rs. 5 - 2000).

Crops.

In 1881-82,of 257,420 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 30,123 acres or 11.70 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 227,297 acres, 4288 were twice cropped. Of the 231,585 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 194,268 acres or 83.88 per cent, of which 107,856 were under spiked millet bdjri Penicillaria spicata 28,782 under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare, 16,310 under ragi or nachni Eleusine corocana; 11,163 under sava and vari Panicum miliaceum and miliare; 8205 under wheat gahu Triticum sestivum; 5998 under rice bhat Oryza sativa; and 15,954 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 17,144 acres or 7.40 per cent of which 4329 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 4056 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 2349 under mug Phaseolus mungo; 1399 under tur Cajanus indicus; 1031 under udid Phaseolus radiatus; 329 under peas vatana Pisum sativum; 302 under lentils masur Ervum lens; and 3349 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 13,367 acres or 5.77 per cent, of which 12,381 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum and 986 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 16 acres all of them under brown hemp ambadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 6790 acres or 293 per cent, of which 3708 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 428 under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; 239 under tobacco tambakhu Nicotiana tabacum; and the remaining 2415 under various vegetables and fruits.

Stock.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 383 riding and 3224 load carts, 7436 two-bullock and 4849 four-bullock ploughs, 44,176 bullocks and 31,664 cows, 1946 he-buffaloes and 10,858 she-buffaloes, 1252 horses, 19,409 sheep and goats, and 783 asses.

People

The 1881 population returns show, of 141,890 people 138,274 or 97.45 per cent Hindus; 3601 or 253 per cent Musalmans; 14 Christians; and one Parsi. The details of the Hindu castes are: 5599 Brahmans; 16 Velalis, 15 Kayasth Prabhus, and 10 Patane Prabhus, writers; 1156 Marwar Vanis, 585 Lingayats, 487 Gujarat Vanis, 99 Vaishya Vanis, and 35 Komtis, traders; 68,913 Kunbis, 6104 Malis, and 7 Kachis, husbandmen; 1855 Chambhars,leather-workers; 1904 Badhais, carpenters; 1298 Kumbhars, potters; 1225 Telis, oilmen; 1188 Sonars, goldsmiths; 590 Shimpis, tailors; 468 Koshtis, weavers; 410 Lobars, blacksmiths; 297 Salis, weavers; 257 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 95 Patharvats, stone-masons; 68 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 46 Nilaris, dyers; 52 Beldars, quarrymen; 35 Otaris, casters; 30 Bhavsars, dyers; 22 Lonaris, lime-burners; 19 Tambats, coppersmiths; 17 Rauls, weavers; 16 Ghisadis, polishers; 11 Khatris and 6 Sangars, weavers; one Jingar, painter; 1240 Guravs, temple-servants; 12 Ghadshis, musicians; 1374 Nhavis, barbers; 547 Parits, washermen; 2446 Dhangars, cowmen; 13 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 21,255 Kolis and 220 Bhois, fishers; 294 Rajputs, messengers; 25 Kalals, distillers; 17 Bhandaris, palm-tappers; 3 Lodhis, labourers; 2 Kamathis, house-builders; 2465 Thakurs, husbandmen; 1229 Ramoshis, watchmen; 236 Kathkaris, catechu-makers; 221 Vadars, stonecutters; 114 Kaikadis, labourers.; 97 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 12 Bhils, labourers; 11,094 Mhars, village servants; 786 Mangs, messengers; 182 Dhors, tanners; and 422 Gosavis, 241 Bharadis, 199 Joshis, 171 Gondhlis, 128 Jangams, 71 Chitrakathis, 59 Vaidus, 27 Jogis, 27 Joharis, 26 Kolhatis, 22 Manbhavs, 21 Bhamtas, 16 Vasudevs, 13 Bhats, 5 Aradhis, 4 Panguls, and 2 Tirmalis, beggars.

Cultivaors.

The leading cultivating classes are Kunbis, Thakurs, Kolis, and Mhars. About sixty per cent of the husbandmen are Kunbis, ten per cent Thakurs, ten per cent Kolis, and ten per cent Mhars. In the larger villages some well-to-do cultivators, not more than ten per cent, have good houses. Most houses are made of hardened mud with sloping roofs of tile or of reeds. Well-to-do landholders own two to four and a few as many as ten pairs of bullocks and a large quantity of grain in store. The poorer cultivators have grain enough to last them eight months, and for the other four months they have to buy or borrow. About sixty per cent of the cultivators are small landholders, thirty per cent labourers, and ten per cent proprietors with tenants.

Communication.

Almost all Khed villages have easy access to Poona, many of them by the Poona-Junnar road passing through the sub-division. Those on the banks of the Bhima and in the east can generally cross into the direct road from Ahmadnagar; others avail themselves of the Alandi road which is always passable by carts. Husbandmen take full advantage of this easy transport, and send to Poona large quantities of grain and fodder or kadbi.

The chief market towns are Khed, Chakan, Aihera, Vada, and a few other small places; Aihera is the largest market in the west, a centre whence rice is sent inland and below the Sahyadris.

MAVAL.

Boundaries.

MA'VAL. one of the Sahyadri sub-divisions, with the head-quarters at Khadkala lying between 18° 36'and 18° 59' north latitude and 73° 26' and 73° 51' east longitude, is bounded on the north by Khed, on the east by Haveli, on the South by Bhor territory and Haveli, and on the west by Bhor territory, the Pen sub-division of Kolaba, and the Karjat sub-division of Thana. Its area is 385 square miles, its 1881 population 62,383 or 162 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue £7586 (Rs. 75,860).

Area.

Of an area of 354 square miles 230,438 acres have been surveyed in detail. Of these 17,665 are the lands of alienated villages. The rest according to the revenue survey returns contains 138,950 acres or 65 per cent of arable land, 24,762 acres or 11 per cent of unarable, 44,419 acres or 21 per cent of grass, 231 acres or 10 per cent of forest reserves, and 4409 or 2 per cent of village sites, roads, riverbeds, and hills. From the 138,950 acres of arable land 15,277 or 11 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 123,673 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 110,889 or 89 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 110,862 acres or 99 per cent were dry-crop and 26 acres or one per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

Three leading spurs from the Sahyadris cross the sub-division. The largest passes east across its whole length in the south, a second, which though not so high is broader, penetrates to the centre, and the third forms the north-eastern boundary for about twenty miles.

The general features of Maval are like those of other Sahyadri sub-divisions. Except the range in which are the forts of Visapur and Lohogad the hills which cross it are not perhaps so large as they are elsewhere; the valleys are also generally more open and level. A striking example of this is in that part of the sub-division which is crossed by the road from Poona to Bombay. The level plain begins three or four miles from Khandala and stretching almost to the foot of the hills which overlook the road on each side, it spreads to within a short distance of Vadgaon. The western parts of the Mulshi petty division are more rugged and waving than any other parts near the Sahyadris. The sub-division is fairly wooded.

Soil.

Red and gray are the leading soils, black being found only on the banks of rivers and large streams. The chief dry-crop products are nachni, sava, and til for the kharif or early crops and wheat and gram for the rabi or late crops. Bajri and jvari are grown to a small extent in a few villages on the eastern border. The black soil lands are suited only for late crops. Rice is the crop from which the cultivators pay their revenue. It is for the most part sent to the Poona market. A little goes below the Sahyadris and a smaller portion is kept for retail sale at the great halting places along the line of road, of which Vadgaon and Khandala are the chief. No manure is applied to any lands in Maval except what they receive from the burning of brushwood and grass, a practice which is confined to rice and nachni seed beds.

Water.

The Indrayani, rising on the western border of the sub-division, passes south-east through its entire length. The Andhra a smaller stream rises in the north-west of the district and has a course of some seventeen miles before it falls into the Indrayani.

At Talegaon Dabhade a pond covering thirty-seven acres and fifty feet deep holds water all the year round, and waters some garden land. It was built about seventy years ago by Dabhade Senapati. The village ponds of Mundhve, Khandala, Vadgaon, Kusur, and Valvhan also hold water throughout the year.

Wells.

Besides 486 wells used for drinking about 55 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 225 are with and 261 without steps. A well waters from ten to thirteen acres and the depth of water varies from one or two feet in Andar Maval to twenty feet in Chakan. The cost of building a well varies from £20 to £120 (Rs. 200 -1200).

Climate.

Though rice grows throughout the sub-division the rainfall varies greatly in different parts. It is very heavy close to the Sahyadris, and considerably lighter near the eastern boundary. Hot winds are almost unknown, and the climate generally is cooler than in the east.

Crops.

In 1831-82, of 111,050 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 47,125 acres or 42.3 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 63,925 acres, 27 were twice cropped. Of the 63,952 acres mules- tillage, grain crops occupied 54,846 acres or 8575 per cent, of which 14990 were under rice bhat Oryza sativa; 14,036 under ragi or nachni Eleusine corocana; 9537 under wheat gahu Triticum restivum: 7885 under sava and vari Panicum miliaceum and miliare; 4618 under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 2919 under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; and 831 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 3613 acres or 5.64 per cent, of which 2678 were under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 440 under lentils masur Ervum lens; 95 under tur Cajanus indicus; 76 under peas vatana Pisum sativum; 21 under udid Phasoolus radiatus; one under mug Phaseolus mungo; and 302 nuder other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 5403 acres or 8.44 per cent, all of which were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum. Fibre.; occupied 10 acres or 0.01 per cent, of which 7 were under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea; and three under other fibres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 80 acres or 0.12 per cent, of which 34 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 22 under sugarcane us Sacchafum officinarum; and the remaining 24 under various vegetables and fruits.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included twenty-two riding and 2065 load carts, 6213 two-bullock and 813 four-bullock ploughs, 16,523 bullocks and 12,370 cows, 2810 he-buffaloes and 4175 she-buffaloes, 293 horses, 1927 sheep and goats, and sixty-four asses.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 62,383 people 59,674 or 95.65 per cent Hindus; 1976 or 3.16 per cent Musalmans; 612 or 0.98 per cent Christians; 70 Parsis; 50 Jews, and one Buddhist. The details of the Hindu castes are: 2285 Brahraans; 76 Kayasth Prabhus, 22 Patane Prabhus, and 9 Velalis, writers; 626 Marwar Vanis, 252 Gujarat Vanis, 155 Lingayats, 42 Vaishya Vanis, and 5 Agarvals, traders; 32,115.Kunbis and 579 Malis, husbandmen; 1327 Telis oilmen; 1237 Chambhars leather workers; 535 Kumbhars, potters; 798 Badhais, cai'penters; 489 Sonars, goldsmiths; 283 Shimpis, tailors; 100 Beldars, quarrymen; 92 Lohars, blacksmiths; 84 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 82 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 52 Jingars, painters; 30 BhaVsars, dyers; 26 Ghisadis, polishers; 21 Tambats, coppersmiths; 18 Sangars, weavers; 11 Bhadbhunjas, grain-parchers; 8 Khatris, weavers; 7 Lonaris, lime-burners; 3 Salis and one Raul, weavers; 2 Otaris, casters; 671 Guravs, temple-servants; 729 Nhavis, barbers; 389 Parits, washermen; 1038 Dhangars, cowmen; 47 Gavlis, cow keepers; 3630 Kolis and 354 Bhois, fishers; 171 Rajputs, messengers; 78 Kamathis, house-builders; 4 Kalals, distillers; 2 Bhandaris, palm tappers; 538 Ramoshis, watchmen; 361 Kathkaris, catechu-makers; 157 Thakurs, husbandmen; 103 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 72 Kaikadis, labourers; 66 Vadars, stone-cutters; 8948 Mhars,village servants; 436 Mangs, messengers; 85 Dhors, tanners; 22 Halalkhors, scavengers; and 135 Gosavis, 94 Bharadis, 46 Jangams, 34 Joshis, 23 Gondhlis, 23 Kolhatis, 13 Chitra-kathis, 7 Aradhis, 6 Tirmalis, 6 Vasudevs, 5 Bhats, 4 Holars, 3 Panguls, 1 Jogi, and 1 Johari, beggars.

Cultivators.

The chief husbandmen are Kunbis, Mhars, Mangs, Dhangars, Kolis, and Malis. Most of their houses are poor, the walls made of hardened earth occasionally mixed with stone with sloping roofs generally tiled and sometimes thatched with reeds and leaves. The poorest husbandmen own no bullocks. Some have one or two pairs, others as many as eight or ten, one or two she-buffaloes or cows, and some sheep and goats. The better-off cultivators have sometimes considerable stores of grain but most have no more than is required to supply food or seed and to sell or exchange for cloth. Nearly seventy per cent of the cultivating classes are small proprietors, twenty per cent are mere labourers, and the rest proprietors with tenants.

Communications.

The Bombay road passes through the sub-division, and the villages along or at a short distance from the line derive a considerable advantage from the sale of grass for the numerous droves of cart and pack bullocks that daily halt at the different stages on the road.

PURANDHAR.

Boundaries,

Purandhar, one of the southern sub-divisions with its head-quarters at Sasvad and lying between 18° 6' and 18° 26' north latitude and 73° 56' and 74° 24' east longitude, is bounded on the north by Haveli and Bhimthadi; on the east by Bhimthadi; on the south by the Vai sub-division of Satara and the Bhor territory; and on the west by Bhor and Haveli. It covers an area of 470 square miles, its 1881 population was 75,678 or 161 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue was £9776 (Rs. 97,760).

Area.

Of an area of about 457 square miles 450 have been surveyed in detail. Of these 114 are the lands of alienated villages. The rest, according to the revenue survey returns, contains 166,388 acres or 76 per cent of arable land; 18,720 acres or 12 per cent of unarable; 5952 or 8 per cent, of grass; 26,655 or 13 per cent of forest reserves, and 7076 or 3 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 166,388 acres of arable land 24,778 or 15 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 141,610 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, 141,503 or 99 per cent were under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 134,039 acres or 94 per cent were dry-crop and 6835 acres or 4 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect.

Purandhar is hilly, in fact mountainous. The different ranges tend north-east and south-west, dividing it into two valleys along which flow almost parallel streams. The spur of the Sahyadris which is the water-shed between the Bhima and the Nira runs along the northern boundary of the sub-division. Its leading summits are those on which stand the fort of Malhargad and the Hindu temples of Bhuleshvar and Dhavaleshvar. A branch of the same spur fills the south half of the sub-division, the only important peak being crowned by the twin forts of Purandhar and Vajragad. The general level is about 2800 feet above the sea, and the hill of Purandhar is nearly 1700 feet higher, on which about 400 feet from the summit is the fort of the same name. The valleys, chiefly the northern valley, have some fairly level well wooded tracts. Along the streams, especially the Karha, are found small tracts of alluvial soil. Elsewhere, except on the flat tops of some of the hills, the soil is shallow and rocky.

The mode of husbandry is like that in the neighbouring subdivisions, except that the land is oftener ploughed, the light soils yearly and the heavier black soils once in two years. The husbandmen also snow unusual energy in cultivation. Manure is applied to dry-crop lands and the garden lands generally get as much as fifty eart-loads to the acre for sugarcane and twenty to thirty cart-loads for ordinary crops. The manure is the usual farmyard refuse or sheep-droppings. Most villages grow a second crop of gram after the bajri or other early crop has been cleared. The raw sugar or gul of this sub-division is much prized for its high quality and firmness which stands long journeys. It fetches about 4s. (Rs. 2) the palla of 120 shers more than that made in other parts of the district. The special strength of the Purandhar sugar is said to be due to their peculiar practice of keeping the cane in the ground eighteen months instead of twelve. The cane is planted in May or June and cut in November or December of the following year. The chief crop is bajri which covers 48 per cent of whole area under tillage, the next highest is jvari with 27.2 per cent. Of the whole area under tillage 51.5 per cent are under early and 48.5 per cent under late crops.

Water.

The Nira forms the southern boundary of the sub-division nearly continuously for twenty miles, and the Karha a small feeder of the Nira rises in the north-west corner and passes east across the sub-division. The other leading stream is the Ganjauni. Into these three rivers the sub-division drains through small valleys, each with a stream giving a good supply of water four or five months after the rains are over. All three rivers run all the year round, and from the lowness of its banks the Karha is of great use to the landholders who push back its water with dams and raise it with lifts. When the Nira Water Works are completed a large area of Purandhar will be commanded. Two masonry ponds at Jejuri, one of about fifteen the other of nearly forty acres, were built at the close of the last century in honour of the god Khandoba by Holkar and Savai Madhavrav Peshwa. Both hold water throughout the year.

Wells.

Besides 280 wells used for drinking about 1677 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 368 are with and 1589 without steps. A well waters from 2½ to 8½ acres, and the depth of water varies from twenty to forty-five feet. The cost of building a well varies from £50 to £120 (Rs. 500- 1200).

Climate.

The rainfall during the six years ending 1876-77 varied from 14.62 inches in 1872-73 to 31.26 inches in 1874-75 and averaged 20.24 inches. In the east of the sub-division the fall is short but as the country becomes more hilly the supply gradually improves towards the west. Its height above the sea, its unfailing water supply, and its woody valleys combine to make Purandhar one of the pleasantest and healthiest parts of the district.

Crops.

In 1881 -82, of 141,548 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 17,502 acres or 12.36 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 124,046 acres, 2225 were twice cropped. Of the 126,271 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 117,997 acres or 93.44 per cent, of which 73,026 were under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 32,820 under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 2464 under ragi or nachni Eleusine corocana; 2435 under maize makka Zea mays; 1489 under rice bhat Oryza sativa; 1012 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 689 under saca and vari Panicum miliaceum and miliare; 681 under rala or kang Panicum italicum; 20 under barley jav Hordeum hexastichon; and 3361 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 5233 acres or 414 per cent, of which 2158 were under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 1620 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 250 under mug Phaseolus mungo; 237 under tur Cajanus indicus; 90 under udid Phaseolus radiatus; and 878 under other pulses. Oilseeds occupied 501 acres or 0.39 per cent, of which 221 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum; 9 under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum; and 271 under other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 91 acres or 0.07 per cent, of which 89 were under Bombay hemp sari or tag Crotalaria juncea; and 2 under brown hemp umbadi Hibiscus cannabinus. Miscellaneous crops occupied 244.9 acres or 1.93 per cent, of which 1022 were under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; 140 under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; and the remaining 1287 under various vegetables and fruits.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 257 riding and 1093 load carts, 1540 two-bullock and 3017 four-bullock ploughs, 23,987 bullocks and 13,883 cows, 597 he-buffaloes and 3540 she-buffaloes, 1252 horses, 31,267 sheep and goats, and 589 asses.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 75,678 people 73,889 or 97.63 per cent Hindus; 1570 or 2.07 per cent Musalmans; 216 or 028 per cent Christians; and three Parsis. The details of the Hindu castes are: 3531 Brahmans; 128 Kayasth Prabhus and 3 Patane Prabhus, writers; 346 Lingayats, 283 Marwar Vanis, 154 Gujarat Vanis, 90 Vaishya Vanis, 5 Agarvals, and one Komti, traders; 38,555 Kunbis and €880 Malis, husbandmen; 1965 Chambhars, leather workers; 730 Badhais, carpenters; 670 Sonars, goldsmiths; 654 Salis, weavers; 619 Kumbhars, potters; 563 Telis, oilmen; 545 Shimpis, tailors; 201 Lohars, blacksmiths; 161 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 137 Koshtis, weavers; 60 Beldars, quarrymen; 45 Bhavsars, dyers; 4t Tambats, coppersmiths; 37 Lonaris, lime-burners; 15 Rauls, weavers; 10 Otaris, casters; 10 Patharvats, stone masons; 10 Sangars, weavers; 9 Buruds, bamoo-workers; 8 Kacharis, glass-bangle-makers; 5 Gaundis, masons; 1 Halvai, sweetmeat-seller; 861 Guravs, temple-servants; 135 Ghadshis, musicians; 858 Nhavis, barbers; and 440 Parits, washermen; 2214 Dhangars, cowmen; 10 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 1118 Kolis and 158 Bhois, fishers; 83Rajputs, messengers; 2784, Ramoshis, watchmen; 203 Vadars, stone-cutters; 109 Thakurs, husbandmen; 77 Kaikadis, labourers; 73 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 6584 Mhars, village-servants; 1193 Mangs, messengers; 16 Halalkhors, scavengers; 152 Gosavis, 131 Joshis, 46 Gondhlis, 37 Bharadis, 37 Jangams, 28 Virs, 20 Vaghyas, 12 Holars, 11 Joharis, 9 Kolhatis, 8 Aradhis, 7 Vasudevs, 2 Manbhavs, and one Bhat, beggars.

Cultivators.

The cultivating classes are Kunbis, Marathas, Malis, Kolis, Dhangars, Kumbhars,. Mhars, Mangs, Ramoshis, Brahmans, and Muhammadans. Except about fifteen per cent of the richer landholders who live in good houses with stone walls and tiled roofs, Kunbis and Marathas live in ordinary houses with walls of hardened earth and flat or tiled roofs. In the hill parts the roofs are generally sloping and thatched. Most cultivators have one to ten pairs of bullocks, some cows, buffaloes, goats, and sheep, and a full set of field tools. A fairly well-to-do landholder keeps by him a sufficient store of grain for food and seed. Except when his arrangements fail or when times are hard he seldom has to apply to moneylenders for seed. About sixty per cent of the cultivators are landowners, twenty per cent labourers, and the rest proprietors with tenants.

Communications.

Of late years communications have been greatly improved, and when the Poona-Londha or West Deccan Railway line is finished Purandhar will be one of the most favoured parts of the district. The Poona-Satara road through the Babdev pass is used by carts as a means of communication from the villages near it to the chief market town of Sasvad where it joins the new road to Poona through the Diva pass. Numerous roads branch from Sasvad. One goes south-east to Jejuri where it is joined by a branch from the main road from the Diva pass, which continues through the market town of Valha to the Nira bridge. This road is metalled and bridged throughout. Half-way from the Babdev pass on the road to Sasvad another road branches to the fort of Purandhar, but since the Diva road was finished this line has not been much used. Another road, fairly metalled but not bridged, goes from Sasvad to the south-west, and after passing through the Sapgir gorge joins the main road from Poona to Satara through the Katraj pass close to the village of Kapurhol in the Pant Sachiv's State. The Katraj road after passing through some of the south-western villages crosses the Nira not far from the market town of Kikvi. Another made but unbridged road goes from Sasvad to the south, passes through the Pimpla gorge close to the village of Parincha and on to the river Nira not far from the village of Tondla. Another road, leaving the main Diva pass route, close to the village of Belsar, crosses the Bhor pass to the railway station of Urali on the Peninsula Railway and is fit for carts. Of three fair weather roads one leads from Sasvad to Supa in Bhimthadi, and two pass east from Jejuri. The local market towns are Sasvad, Valha, Parincha, and Kikvi. Except Sasvad they are of no great importance. Almost the whole field produce goes to Poona as the numerous good roads throughout the sub-division make the journey easy and speedy. Its thrifty skilful husbandmen and its immediate prospect of unfailing water from the Nira canal and of railway communication with Poona have combined to draw the attention of those interested to Purandhar as perhaps the most favourable part of the Deccan in which to try the experiment of an Agricultural Bank.

SIRUR.

Boundaries.

Sirur, in the north-east of the district lying between 18° 31' and 19° 1' north latitude and 74° 5' and 74° 40' east longitude and about thirty-eight miles long and thirty-six miles broad, is bounded on the north by Junnar and the Parner sub-division of Ahmadnagar separated by the Ghod river; on the east by Shrigonda also a sub-division of Ahmadnagar; on the south by Bhimthadi and Haveli both separated from it by the Bhima; and on the west by Khed and Junnar. One village is detached about five miles from the north boundary on the Poona and Ahmadnagar border. Its area is 578 square miles, its 1881 population was 72,793 or 126 to the square mile, and its 1881-82 land revenue was £13,759 (Rs. 1,37,590).

Area.

Of an area of above 577 square miles 366,589 acres have been surveyed in detail. Of these 64,480 acres are the lands of alienated villages. The rest, according to the revenue survey returns, contains 248,063 acres or 82 per cent of arable land; about 8 per cent of unarable land; 3 per cent of grass; 2 per cent of forest reserves; 4 per cent of village sites, roads, river beds, and hills. From the 248,063 acres of arable land, 4034 or 4 per cent have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Government villages. The whole balance of 234,029 acres, the actual area of arable Government land, was under tillage in 1880-81. Of these 229,862 acres or 76 per cent were dry-crop and 4167 acres or 24 per cent were watered garden land.

Aspect

Sirur consists of stony uplands seamed towards the centre by rugged valleys, but towards its river boundaries sloping into more open plains. The chief features are low hills and uplands. The low hills are sometimes rugged and steep; and the uplands have in some cases rich tracts of good soil, and in others are poor and stony with, especially in the south-east corner, gentle wavings passing into a fairly level plain. The country is throughout sparsely wooded. The prevailing soil is a light friable gray, freely mixed with gravel, which requires seasonable and frequent falls of rain to make it yield. The best upland soils are purplish black of suddenly changing depth and very productive even with a comparatively scanty rainfall. The villages lying along the Bhima and the Ghod, especially near their meeting have a fair share of black soil, and black soil is also found in the dips and hollows of other villages. Bajri and jvari are the staple crops. Manure as a rule is applied to watered lands, and to a limited extent to dry crop lands; Garden tillage is carried on by means of channels or pats and wells, but chiefly by wells. The fair weather bandharas or dams, 127 in number, are made year after year when the rains are over. Few streams flow till the middle of May and most are dry by the middle of March. In 1881, 164 acres were watered by channels, 424 by channels and wells combined, and 2543 by wells, making a total watered area of 3131 acres. Of the 3131 watered acres 186 were under the richer crops, sugarcane, betel-leaf, plantains, grapes, and other fruits, and the rest under poorer crops, groundnuts, chillies, onions, potatoes, sweet-potatoes, wheat, and gram. The husbandry is similar to, but in many places is more efficient and careful than that practised in other parts of the district. On unwatered land as a rule only one crop is grown, though some tracts with good moisture-holding soil yield a second crop.

Water.

The Bhima after forming the southern and its feeder the Ghod after forming the northern boundary of the sub-division, meet at its south-eastern corner, while the Vel entering from the west falls into the Bhima after a course of about eighteen miles. The Kukdi a feeder of the Ghod also touches the extreme northern corner of the sub-division.

Climate.

The rainfall at Sirur during the twelve years ending 1881 varied from 9.91 inches in 1871 to 23.72 inches and averaged 17.39 inches.

Wells.

Besides 337 wells used for drinking, about 1620 wells are used for watering the land. Of the whole number about 209 are with and 1748 without steps. A well waters from three to four acres and the depth of water varies from four to twelve feet. The cost of building a well varies from £40 to £100 (Rs. 400 - 1000).

Crops.

In 1881-82, of 224,126 acres, the whole area held for tillage, 17,434 acres or 7.77 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining 206,692 acres, 2181 were twice cropped. Of the 208,873 acres under tillage, grain crops occupied 178,945 acres or 85.67 per cent, of which 116,306 were under spiked millet bajri Penicillaria spicata; 57,239 under Indian millet jvari Sorghum vulgare; 4919 under wheat gahu Triticum aestivum; 68 under rala or kang Pani-cum italicum; 9 under maize makka Zea mays; and 404 under other grains of which details are not given. Pulses occupied 19,885 acres or 9.52 per cent, of which 7830 were under tur Cajanus indicus; 2360 under gram harbhara Cicer arietinum; 942 under kulith or kulthi Dolichos biflorus; 5 under mug Phaseolus mungo; and 8748 under other pulses. Oil-seeds occupied 748S acres or 3.58 per cent, of which 878 were under gingelly seed til Sesamum indicum; three under linseed alshi Linum usitatissimum; and 6607 under other oil-seeds. Fibres occupied 526 acres or 0.25 per cent all of them under Bombay hemp san or tag Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 2029 acres or 0^-97 per cent of which 1131 were under chillies mirchi Capsicum frutescens; 878 under sugarcane us Saccharum officinarum; 84 under tobacco tambakhu Nicotiana tabacum; and the remaining 436 under various vegetables and fruits.

Stock.

According to the 1882-83 returns farm stock included 472 riding and 1512 load carts, 1432 two-bullock and 4080 four-bullock ploughs, 27,296 bullocks and 18,255 cows, 517 he-buffaloes and 2183 she-buffaloes, 1484 horses, 38,107 sheep and goats, and 736 asses.

People.

The 1881 population returns show, of 72,793 people 68,674 or 94.34 per cent Hindus; 4036 or 554 per cent Musaluians; 81 Christians; and two Jews. The details of the Hindu castes are: 2159 Brahmans; 22 Kayasth Prabhus, writers; 1365 Marwar Vanis, 285 Lingayats, 214 Gujarat Vanis, 79 Komtis, 44 Vaishya Vanis, and 15 Agarvals, traders; 34,566 Kunbis, 6661 M&lis, and 48 Kachis, husbandmen; 1639 Chambhars, leather-workers; 710, Badhais, carpenters; 653 Salis, weavers; 648 Kumbhars, potters; 647 Sonars, goldsmiths; 582 Telis, oilmen; 549 Shimpis, tailors; 358 Lohars, blacksmiths; 281 Kasars, glassbangle-hawkers; 138 Sangars, weavers; 85 Lonaris, lime-burners; 46 Jingars, painters; 41 Buruds, bamboo-workers; 41 Koshtis, weavers; 36 Tambats, coppersmiths; 35 Bhavsars, dyers; 32 Patharvats, stone-masons; 16 Rauls, weavers; 12 Nilaris, dyers; 8 Ghisadis, polishers; 4 Beldars, quarrymen; 362 Guravs, temple-servants; 27 Ghadshis, musicians; 758 Nhavis, barbers; 555 Parits, washermen; 3286 Dhangars, cowmen; 41 Gavlis, cowkeepers; 560 Kolis and 178 Bhois, fishers; 171 Rajputs, messengers; 26 Kamathis, house-builders; 1717 Ramoshis, watchmen; 274 Vadars, sbone-cutters; 131 Vanjaris, grain-dealers; 63 Kaikadis, labourers; 71 Thakurs, husbandmen; 37 Bhils, labourers; 34 Phasepardhis, hunters; 5548 Mhars, village-servants; 1514 Mangs, messengers; 73 Dhors, tanners; 43 Halalkhors, scavengers; 420 Gosavis, 151 Joshis, 137 Manbhavs, 105 Bharadis, 65 Bhamtas, 63 Jangams, 59 Kolhatis, 53 Vaidus, 43 Gondhlis, 40 Chitrakathis, 37 Bhats, 9 Aradhis, and 4 Vasudevs, beggars.

Cultivators.

The cultivating classes, who form nearly two-thirds of the whole population, are chiefly Kunbis and Malis who are found throughout the sub-division. A few members of other castes till themselves or by tenants. Most husbandmen's houses have walls of hardened earth and mud with flat roofs. In Ghodnadi, Pabal, Kendur, Talegaon Dhamdhere, and other large towns, about fifteen per cent of the houses have tiled sloping roofs and about eight per cent are built of stone. A well-to-do landholder owns three to six pair of bullocks, one or two cows and she-buffaloes, and perhaps a few sheep and goats. A poorer landholder will sometimes have only one pair of bullocks. About five per cent of the husbandmen have to borrow both cattle and field tools. The poorer husbandmen have barely enough to support their families throughout the year and are forced to work as labourers during the slack season. The better off have the usual grain bins in which they store grain for food and seed. About fifty per cent of the cultivating classes are small landholders, about twenty per cent are proprietors with tenants, and about thirty per cent are labourers. Both Malis and Kunbis engage freely in carting when field work is slack. Some Dhangars weave and spin wool, but their chief calling besides agriculture is tending flocks. Labour and the sale of dairy produce supply the wants of many cultivators.

Communications.

Sirur is well off for roads. The high road from Bengal through Aurangabad- and Ahmadnagar to Poona and the coast passes through the sub-division, entering from the north-east close to the town of Sirur and leaving it in the south-west corner close to Koregaon. Two other metalled roads lead one from Sirur to Khed in the west through Pabal, and another also from Sirur to the Bhimthadi sub-division in the south through the Kedgaon railway station. Eight fair weather roads join the chief towns and act as branch communications between the main or metalled roads. No other sub-division in Poona has such facilities for cart traffic. Though the railway does not pass through the sub-division, five stations between Urali and Dhond are easy of access and at no great distance from the southern border. Of five market towns Sirur, Pabal, Talegaon, Kendur, and Kavtha, the chief is Sirur which is also a cattle market. The weekly sales amount to about £30 (Rs.300) worth of grain, £30 (Rs. 300) worth of cattle, and £20 (Rs. 200) of steam and hand woven cloth. The chief industries are the weaving of women's robes and turbans which employs ninety-three and the weaving of blankets which employs eight looms. Most of the produce of the looms is used locally, and the rest goes to Poona.